Kut And Chicken George Character Analysis

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'Of Mice and Men': George Character Quotes \u0026 Word-Level Analysis! - GCSE English Literature Revision

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So we say that [k] is a voiceless velar fricative. Write similar definitions for the initial sounds in the normal pronunciation of the following words. Based on the following examples, can you work out what that common feature is? What are the four equivalent symbols used in the International Phonetic Alphabet, as illustrated in Table 3. Among the types of consonants already described affricates, fricatives, glides, liquids, nasals, stops , which are obstruents, which are sonorants and why? G i How would you make a retroflex sound? H What is forensic phonetics? In front of a mirror or enlist a cooperative friend to be the speaker , say the following pairs of words.

As you are doing this, can you decide which are rounded or unrounded vowels and which are tense or lax vowels? What clues are you using to help you make your decision? II English has a number of expressions such as chit-chat and flip-flop which never seem to occur in the reverse order i. Perhaps you can add examples to the following list of similar expressions. Roach, J. Setter and J. Katamba, P. Kerswill, R. Wodak and T. Live inne contri nire foresta. No mugheggia. Uanna dei pappa, mamma, e beibi go bice, orie e furghetta locche di dorra.

Bai ene bai commese Goldilocchese. Sci garra natingha tu du batte meiche troble. Sci puscia olle fudde daon di maute; no live cromma. Bob Belviso, quoted in Espy In the preceding chapter, we investigated the physical production of speech sounds in terms of the articulatory mechanisms of the human vocal tract. That investigation was possible because of some rather amazing facts about the nature of language. Yet those two physically different individuals would inevitably have physically different vocal tracts, in terms of size and shape. In a sense, every individual has a physically different vocal tract.

Consequently, in purely physical terms, every individual will pronounce sounds differently. There are, then, potentially millions of physically different ways of saying the simple word me. Phonology In addition to those millions of different individual vocal tracts, each individual will not pronounce the word me in a physically identical manner on every occasion. Obvious differences occur when that individual is shouting, or has just woken from a deep sleep, or is suffering from a bad cold, or is trying to ask for a sixth martini, or any combination of these. The answer to that question is provided to a large extent by the study of phonology. Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.

It is, in effect, based on a theory of what every adult speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of that language. Because of this theoretical status, phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds. We can use various different ways of spelling the words in the first and second lines below, but the underlying phonological representation in the third line is constant. See the end of the chapter for a full translation of the story.

In actual speech, these [t] sounds are all potentially very different from each other because they can be pronounced in such different ways in relation to the other sounds around them. These sounds must be distinct meaningful sounds, regardless of which individual vocal tract is being used to pronounce them, because they are what make the words tar, car, far and bar meaningfully distinct. Considered from this point of view, we can see that phonology is concerned with the abstract representation of sounds in our minds that enables us to recognize and interpret the meaning of words on the basis of the actual physical sounds we say and hear.

Phonemes Each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language is described as a phoneme. When we learn to use alphabetic writing, we are actually using the concept of the phoneme as the single stable sound type that is represented by a single written symbol. An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. This contrastive property is the basic operational test for determining the phonemes in a language. If we change one sound in a word and there is a change of meaning, the sounds are distinct phonemes. Because these two sounds share some features, they are sometimes described as members of a natural class of phonemes. Phonemes that have certain features in common tend to behave phonologically in some similar ways.

Table 4. They are both voiceless stops. This type of feature analysis allows us to describe not only individual phonemes, but also the possible sequences of phonemes in a language. The [t] sound in the word tar is normally pronounced with a stronger puff of air than is present in the [t] sound in the word star. If you put the back of your hand in front of your mouth as you say tar, then star, you should feel some physical evidence of aspiration the puff of air accompanying the [t] sound at the beginning of tar but not in star.

Complementary Distribution When we have two different pronunciations allophones of a sound type phoneme , each used in different places in words, they are said to be in complementary distribution. Minimal Pairs and Sets Phonemic distinctions in a language can be tested via pairs and sets of words. When two words such as fan and van are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair. When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme always in the same position in the word , they are described as a minimal set. Examples of contrasting pairs and sets are presented in Table 4.

The first minimal set in Table 4. According to my dictionary, these are not English words, but they could be viewed as possible English words. That is, our phonological knowledge of the pattern of sounds in English words would allow us to treat these forms as acceptable if, at some future time, they came into use. They might, for example, begin as invented abbreviations I think Bubba is one very ignorant guy. They have been formed without obeying some constraints on the sequence or position of English phonemes. Such constraints are called the phonotactics i. Syllables A syllable must contain a vowel or vowel-like sound, including diphthongs. The most common type of syllable also has a consonant C before the vowel V and is represented as CV. The basic elements of the syllable are the onset one or more consonants followed by the rhyme.

Syllables like me, to or no have an onset and a nucleus, but no coda. They are known as open syllables. When a coda is present, as in the syllables up, cup, at or hat, they are called closed syllables. Figure 4. There are many CC onset combinations permitted in English phonotactics, as in black, bread, trick, twin, flat and throw. English can actually have larger onset clusters, as in the words stress and splat, consisting of three initial consonants CCC.

When we study the phonotactics of these larger onset consonant clusters, we can find a fairly regular pattern. Does the description also cover the second syllable in the pronunciation of exclaim? Remember that it is the onset of the syllable that is being described, not the beginning of the word. See Task D on page 51 for more syllables and clusters. Coarticulation Effects It is quite unusual for languages to have large consonant clusters of the type just described.

In English, large clusters may be reduced in casual conversational speech, particularly if they occur in the middle of a word. This is just one example of a process that is usually discussed in terms of coarticulation effects. In much of the preceding discussion, we have been describing speech sounds in syllables and words as if they are always pronounced carefully in slow motion. Speech is not normally like that.

The process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next sound is called coarticulation. In the physical production of speech, this regular process happens simply because it is quicker, easier and more efficient for our articulators as they do their job. Nasalization Vowels are also subject to assimilation. However, when we say the words pin and pan in everyday talk, the anticipation of the final nasal consonant makes it easier to go into the nasalized articulation in advance.

Elision In the last example, illustrating the normal pronunciation of you and me, the [d] sound of the word and was not included in the transcription. That is because it is not usually pronounced in this phrase. This process of not pronouncing a sound segment that might be present in the deliberately careful pronunciation of a word in isolation is described as elision. These processes are summarized in Table 4. In fact, consistently avoiding the regular patterns of assimilation, nasalization and elision used in a language would result in extremely artificial- sounding talk. The point of investigating these phonological processes is not to arrive at a set of rules about how a language should be pronounced, but to try to come to an understanding of the regularities and patterns that underlie the actual use of sounds in language.

Are these two vowels allophones or phonemes in French? B Individual sounds are described as segments. What are suprasegmentals? C i In the phonology of the Hawaiian language there are only open syllables. Also, based on this slender evidence, which two English consonants are probably not phonemes in Hawaiian? Looking at the list of Hawaiian names below, can you identify the other seven Hawaiian consonants?

E The English words lesson and little are typically pronounced with syllabic consonants. Can you also add the appropriate phonological forms of the three diphthongs at the top of each column? H A general distinction can be made among languages depending on their basic rhythm, whether they have syllable-timing or stress-timing. How are these two types of rhythm distinguished and which type characterizes the pronunciation of English, French and Spanish? It has been noted that voiced and voiceless stops have different distributions in Cree than in English. How would you describe the special phonological processes involved in the pronunciation of the negative versions of the following words?

For background reading, see chapter 2 pages 55—56 of Jeffries, Bob Belviso Translated One attempt to interpret those very unusual spellings might be as follows: Once upon a time was three bears; mama bear, papa bear and baby bear. Live in the country near the forest. No mortgage. One day papa, mama and baby go beach, only they forget to lock the door.

By and by comes Goldilocks. She got nothing to do but make trouble. She push all the food down the mouth; no leave a crumb. Then she goes upstairs and sleeps in all the beds. Norris The creation of new words in a language never stops and English is one language that is particularly fond of adding to its large vocabulary. Traditionally, we would check in a dictionary to be sure that we were using the right word, with correct spelling, but technological advances have provided us with programs that do the checking for us, or, even more insidiously, as in the situation described by Mary Norris, try to choose the words for us.

Murray Spangler invented a device that he called an electric suction sweeper. This device eventually became very popular and could have become known as a spangler. People could have been spanglering their floors or they might even have spanglered their rugs and curtains. The use could have extended to a type of person who droned on and on and really sucked , described as spanglerish, or to a whole style of behavior called spanglerism. However, none of that happened. Instead, Mr. The point of this small tale is that, although we had never heard of Mr. Spangler before, we really had no difficulty coping with the new words: spangler, spanglerish, spanglerism, spanglering or spanglered.

That is, we can very quickly understand a new word, a neologism, and accept the use of different forms of that new word in the language. This ability must derive in part from the fact that there is a lot of regularity in the word-formation processes in a language. In this chapter, we will explore some of the basic processes by which new words are created.

Greek and Latin are the sources of many English words, often providing alternative ways to describe things, such as mono- from Greek mono-cycle and uni- from Latin uni-cycle. The other major source, Germanic, provides an alternative form one- one-wheeled cycle. When we look closely at the etymologies of everyday words, we soon discover that there are many different ways in which new words can enter the language. We should keep in mind that a lot of words in daily use today were, at one time, considered barbaric misuses of the language. Yet many new words can cause similar outcries as they come into use today. Rather than act as if the language is being debased, we might prefer to view the constant evolution of new words and new uses of old words as a reassuring sign of vitality and creativeness in the way a language is shaped by the needs of its users.

Borrowing One of the most common sources of new words in English is the process simply labeled borrowing, that is, the taking over of words from other languages. Throughout its history, the English language has adopted a vast number of words from other languages, including these examples: dope Dutch piano Italian tattoo Tahitian jewel French pretzel German tycoon Japanese glitzy Yiddish ski Norwegian yogurt Turkish lilac Persian sofa Arabic zebra Bantu Sometimes a new sound comes along along with new words.

In some cases, the borrowed words are used with quite novel meanings, as in the contemporary German use of the English words partner and look in the phrase im Partnerlook to describe two people who are together and wearing similar clothing. Other German uses of English words are illustrated in Task F on page In this process, there is a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language. The English expression moment of truth is believed to be a calque from the Spanish phrase el momento de la verdad, though not restricted to the original use as the final thrust of the sword to end a bullfight.

Thus, Lehn and Wort are combined to produce Lehnwort in German. This combining process, technically known as compounding, is very common in languages such as German and English, but much less common in languages such as French and Spanish. Common English compounds are bookcase, doorknob, fingerprint, sunburn, textbook, wallpaper, wastebasket and waterbed. All these examples are nouns, but we can also create compound adjectives good-looking, low-paid and compounds of adjective fast plus noun food as in a fast-food restaurant or a full-time job.

This very productive source of new terms has been well documented in English and German, but can also be found in totally unrelated languages, such as Hmong spoken in Laos and Vietnam , which has many recently created compounds. More examples can be found in Task I, on page However, in blending, we typically take only the beginning of one word and join it to the end of the other word. To talk about the combined effects of smoke and fog, we can use the word smog. How about the word fax? Is that a blend? No, see next category. Clipping The element of reduction that is noticeable in blending is even more apparent in the process described as clipping.

This occurs when a word of more than one syllable facsimile is reduced to a shorter form fax , usually beginning in casual speech. The term gasoline is still used, but most people talk about gas, using the clipped form. Other common examples are ad advertisement , bra brassiere , cab cabriolet , condo condominium , fan fanatic , flu influenza , perm permanent wave , phone, plane, porn and pub public house. Hypocorisms A particular type of reduction, favored in Australian and British English, produces forms technically known as hypocorisms. In this process, a longer word is reduced to a single syllable, then -y or -ie is added to the end.

You can probably guess what Chrissy pressies are. Backformation A very specialized type of reduction process is known as backformation. Typically, a word of one type usually a noun is reduced to form a word of another type usually a verb. A good example of backformation is the process whereby the noun television first came into use and then the verb televise was created from it. Here are some other recent creations. The assumption seems to have been that if there is a noun ending in -er or something close in sound , then we can create a verb for what that noun-er does.

Hence, an editor will edit, a sculptor will sculpt and babysitters, beggars, burglars, peddlers and swindlers will babysit, beg, burgle, peddle and swindle. Conversion A change in the function of a word, as for example when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any reduction , is generally known as conversion. The conversion process is very productive in Modern English, with new uses occurring frequently. The conversion can involve verbs becoming nouns, with guess, must and spy as the sources of a guess, a must and a spy. Phrasal verbs to print out, to take over also become nouns a printout, a takeover. Some other examples of conversion are listed here. Verbs see through, stand up can also become adjectives, as in see-through material or a stand-up comedian.

A number of adjectives, as in a dirty floor, an empty room, some crazy ideas and those nasty people, have become the verbs to dirty and to empty, or the nouns a crazy and the nasty. Some compound nouns have assumed other functions, exemplified by the ball park appearing in a ball-park figure as an adjective or asking someone to ball-park an estimate of the cost as a verb.

Other nouns of this type are carpool, mastermind, microwave and quarterback, which are also used as verbs now. It is worth noting that some words can shift substantially in meaning when they go through conversion. The verb to doctor often has a negative sense, not normally associated with the source noun a doctor. A similar kind of reanalysis of meaning is taking place with the noun total and the verb run around, which do not have negative meanings.

Typical sources are trade names for commercial products that become general terms usually without capital letters for any version of that product. Older examples are aspirin, nylon, vaseline and zipper; more recent examples are granola, kleenex, teflon and xerox. It may be that there is an obscure technical origin e. The most salient contemporary example of coinage is the word google. When we talked about a hoover or even a spangler , we were using an eponym. We use the eponyms teddy bear, derived from US president Theodore Teddy Roosevelt, and jeans from the Italian city of Genoa where the type of cloth was first made. Another eponym dates from when John Montagu, the fourth Earl of Sandwich, insisted on having his salt beef between two slices of toasted bread while gambling.

Many speakers do not think of their component meanings. Derivation In our list so far, we have not dealt with what is by far the most common word- formation process to be found in the production of new words. Some familiar examples are the elements un-, mis-, pre-, -ful, -less, -ish, -ism and -ness which appear in words like unhappy, misrepresent, prejudge, joyful, careless, boyish, terrorism and sadness. These are called prefixes. Other affixes are added to the end of the word e. All English words formed by this derivational process have either prefixes or suffixes, or both.

Thus, mislead has a prefix, disrespectful has both a prefix and a suffix, and foolishness has two suffixes. According to Dixon 11 , English has about derivational affixes, divided into 90 prefixes and suffixes. We will investigate the range of English affixes in more detail in Chapter 6. Infixes There is a third type of affix, not normally used in English, but found in some other languages.

This is called an infix, which is an affix that is incorporated inside another word. It is possible to see the general principle at work in certain expressions, occasionally used in fortuitous or aggravating circumstances by emotionally aroused English speakers: Hallebloodylujah! However, a much better set of examples can be provided from Khmu or Kamhmu , a language spoken in northern Laos and Vietnam. Multiple Processes Although we have concentrated on each of these word-formation processes in isolation, it is possible to trace the operation of more than one process at work in the creation of a particular word. For example, the term deli seems to have become a common American English expression via a process of first borrowing delicatessen from German and then clipping that borrowed form.

If someone says that problems with the project have snowballed, the final word can be analyzed as an example of compounding in which snow and ball were combined to form the noun snowball, which was then turned into a verb through conversion. Forms that begin as acronyms can also go through other processes, as in the use of lase as a verb, the result of backformation from laser. The formation of this new word, however, was helped by a quite different process, known simply as analogy, whereby new words are formed that are similar in some way to existing words.

One joke has it that yippies just grew up to be yuppies. And the process continues. Many of these new words can, of course, have a very brief life-span. Further examples are included in Task E, on page It would seem that Noah had a keener sense than his critics of which new word forms in the language were going to last. Study Questions 1 When is an eponym a neologism? How would you describe the other s? Can you identify the processes involved in each case? Were there any examples in this chapter? How many examples were included in this chapter?

C Using a dictionary with etymological information, identify which of the following words are borrowings and from which languages they were borrowed. Are any of them eponyms? Can you reverse the syllabification process to identify the following English words borrowed into Japanese? One list has items you can get at a place known as makudonarudo, the other has items connected to supootsu. Using a dictionary if necessary, try to describe the word-formation processes involved in the creation of the underlined words in these sentences.

F In this chapter we noted an example Partnerlook of the creation of a new German word using one or more English words, yet with a meaning not found in English. In the following list, there are some more words in contemporary German that have been created from English words. How do you decide? Which part of the compound determines whether it is a noun or verb?

Using the following translations from Downing and Fuller, , can you work out the English equivalents of the Hmong expressions listed below? Using the examples below, and any others that you want to include in the discussion, try to decide if there are any typical patterns in the way we form compounds. II The sign in Figure 5. However, when we derive new words with a suffix such as -able, there seems to be some type of constraint on what is permitted.

Figure 5. Kessler and W. Naish, C. Rensch and G. Unfortunately, there are a number of problems with using this observation as the basis of an attempt to describe language in general, and individual linguistic forms in particular. For example, in Swahili or Kiswahili, spoken throughout East Africa , the form nitakupenda conveys what, in English, would have to be represented as something like I will love you.

Now, is the Swahili form a single word? We can recognize that English word forms such as talks, talker, talked and talking must consist of one element talk, and the other four elements -s, -er, -ed and -ing. All these elements are described as morphemes. So, we can take words apart, as shown in Table 6. Table 6. There are free morphemes, that is, morphemes that can stand by themselves as single words, for example, new and tour. There are also bound morphemes, which are those forms that cannot normally stand alone and are typically attached to another form, exemplified as re-, -ist, -ed, -s. These forms were described in Chapter 5 as affixes.

So, we can say that all affixes prefixes and suffixes in English are bound morphemes. The free morphemes can generally be identified as the set of separate English word forms such as basic nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. When they are used with bound morphemes attached, the basic word forms are technically known as stems. For example: undressed carelessness un- dress -ed care -less -ness prefix stem suffix stem suffix suffix bound free bound free bound bound We should note that this type of description is a partial simplification of the morphological facts of English.

There are a number of English words, typically derived from Latin, in which the element treated as the stem is not a free morpheme. In words such as receive, reduce and repeat, we can identify the bound morpheme re- at the beginning, but the elements -ceive, -duce and -peat are not separate word forms in English and hence cannot be free morphemes. These free forms are called lexical morphemes. Other types of free morphemes are called functional morphemes. Examples are articles a, the , conjunctions and, because , prepositions on, near and pronouns it, me.

Derivational Morphemes The set of affixes that make up the category of bound morphemes can also be divided into two types. One type is described in Chapter 5 in terms of the derivation of words. These are derivational morphemes. We use these bound forms to make new words or to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme -ment changes the verb encourage to the noun encouragement. The noun class can become the verb classify by the addition of the derivational morpheme -ify.

Derivational morphemes can be suffixes like -ment and -ify and also prefixes, such as re-, pre-, ex-, mis-, co-, un-. These are not used to produce new words in the language, but rather to indicate the grammatical function of a word. English has only eight inflectional morphemes, all suffixes. One likes to have fun and is always laughing. The other enjoyed school as a child and has always been very serious.

One is the loudest person in the house and the other is quieter than a mouse. There are four inflections attached to verbs: -s 3rd person singular, present tense , -ing present participle , -ed past tense and -en past participle. Two inflections attach to adjectives: -er comparative and -est superlative. There is some variation in the form of these inflectional morphemes. An inflectional morpheme never changes the grammatical category of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The -er inflection here from Old English -ra simply creates a different version of the adjective. However, a derivational morpheme can change the grammatical category of a word.

The verb teach becomes the noun teacher if we add the derivational morpheme -er from Old English -ere. So, the suffix -er in Modern English can be an inflectional morpheme as part of an adjective and also a distinct derivational morpheme as part of a noun. Whenever there is a derivational suffix and an inflectional suffix used together, they always appear in that order. First the derivational -er is attached to teach, then the inflectional -s is added to produce teachers. Figure 6. The inflectional morpheme -s is added to cat and we get the plural cats.

What is the inflectional morpheme that makes sheep the plural of sheep, or men the plural of man? These two words are clearly exceptions to the general pattern and have to be treated as special cases. One way to describe more regular differences in inflectional morphemes is by proposing variation in morphological realization rules. In order to do this, we draw an analogy with processes already noted in phonology Chapter 4, page Just as we treated phones as the actual phonetic realization of phonemes, so we can propose morphs as theactual forms used to realize morphemes.

The inflectional suffix -ed is used in the typical derivation: flirted, hugged and kissed. See Task C, on page 81, for more on the allomorphs of past tense in English. Other languages When we look at the morphology of other languages, we can find other forms and patterns realizing the basic types of morphemes we have identified. Kanuri This first set of examples is from Kanuri, a language spoken in Nigeria. The process is similar to the use of the suffix -ness in English, creating the noun bigness from the adjective big.

Discovering a regular morphological feature of this type helps us to make certain predictions when we encounter other forms. Ganda Different languages also employ different means to produce inflectional marking on forms. Here are some examples from Ganda, a language spoken in Uganda. Ilocano When we look at Ilocano, a language of the Philippines, we find a quite different way of marking plurals. Tagalog Here are some examples from Tagalog, another language of the Philippines. It is an example of an infix described in Chapter 5, page In the third example in each column, the change involves a repetition of the first syllable, as basa becomes babasa.

So, referring to the future in Tagalog is done via reduplication. In the third column, with reduplication, we would write lalakad and lalapit. Learn more about Tagalog in Task D, on page Study Questions 1 How many morphemes are there in the word terrorists? When she walked into the room, the doctor asked me if I had a sore throat or an annoying cough. Bob brought hot donuts to class. I put it on the shelf near you and him. What is the technical term used to describe this relationship? Were there any examples of English suppletive forms described in this chapter? B What are enclitics and proclitics? Does English have both? What are some typical English examples?

Are these lexical or functional morphemes? Are these derivational or inflectional suffixes? What do you think is the basis for choosing one or the other? F Using what you learned about Swahili and information provided in the set of examples below, create appropriate forms as translations of the English expressions 1 — 6 that follow. H Regular nouns in Tamasheq spoken in north-west Africa have different forms when they are singular or plural, masculine or feminine. Is there a special term for affixes that have the structure illustrated in most of the plural nouns here?

There is also a basic description in Aikhenvald and Genetti, They illustrate a derivational process in which noun-like forms are created from verb stems. After studying the first set of examples and the additional verb stems, can you add appropriate forms to the sentences below? This would suggest that the forms with the regular plural affix -s follow a different rule in compounding than irregular plural forms such as mice. Can you think of a way to state a rule or sequence of rules that would accommodate all the examples given here? Using this information, can you state the conditions under which each of the plural morphs is used?

For more examples, see Gleason, For more on Turkish, see Lewis, Fudeman What Is Morphology? Blackwell Payne, T. Genetti ed. HIV-tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome is characterized by Toll-like receptor and inflammasome signalling. Nature Communications 6 , Anderson, S. G, Twahir, H. Diagnosis of childhood tuberculosis and host RNA expression in Africa. New England Journal of Medicine Martineau, A. Reciprocal seasonal variation in vitamin D status and tuberculosis notifications in Cape Town, South Africa.

As these early immigrants settled in different regions throughout what was then British Malaya and Borneo , they carried with them traditions of foods and recipes that were particularly identified with their origins in China, which gradually became infused with the characteristics of their new home locale in Malaysia while remaining distinctively Chinese. For example, Hainanese chicken rice is usually flavoured with tropical pandan leaves and served with chilli sauce for dipping, and tastes unlike the typical chicken dishes found in Hainan Island itself. Some of these foods and recipes became closely associated with a specific city, town or village, eventually developing iconic status and culminating in a proliferation of nationwide popularity in the present day.

Chinese food is especially prominent in areas with concentrated Chinese communities, at roadside stalls, hawker centres and kopitiam, as well as smart cafes and upmarket restaurants throughout the nation. Many Chinese dishes have pork as a component ingredient, but chicken is available as a substitution for Muslim customers from the wider community, and some Chinese restaurants are even halal -certified.

Malaysian Indian cuisine, or the cooking of the ethnic Indian communities in Malaysia consists of adaptations of authentic dishes from India, as well as original creations inspired by the diverse food culture of Malaysia. As the vast majority of Malaysia's Indian community are mostly ethnic Tamils who are descendants of the modern Indian state of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka 's Northern Province , much of Malaysian Indian cuisine is predominantly South Indian inspired in character and taste.

A typical Malaysian Indian dish is likely to be redolent with curry leaves, whole and powdered spice, and contains fresh coconut in various forms. Ghee is still widely used for cooking, although vegetable oils and refined palm oils are now commonplace in home kitchens. Before a meal it is customary to wash hands as cutlery is often not used while eating, with the exception of a serving spoon for each respective dish. Food served in the traditional South Indian manner is termed banana leaf rice. Plain white or parboiled rice would be served with an assortment of vegetable preparations, lentil gravy, pickles, condiments, and papadum crackers on a banana leaf, which acts as a disposable plate.

Banana leaf meals are eaten to celebrate special occasions such as festivals, birthdays, marriages, or to commemorate funeral wakes. It is customary to consume banana leaf meals by hand and to show appreciation for the food by folding the banana leaf inwards, though less ritual and etiquette is observed when the meal isn't part of a formal occasion, such as the Malayalee community's elaborate Sadya feasts. Boiled eggs, meat or seafood dishes are available at banana leaf restaurants which are not exclusively vegetarian or vegan. The food of Sabah reflects the ethnic diversity of its population and is very eclectic. Traditional Kadazandusun cuisine involves mostly boiling or grilling and employs little use of oil. From simple appetizers of seasoned unripe mango to a variety of pickled foods collectively known as noonsom , tangy and pungent flavours derived from souring agents or fermentation techniques is a key characteristic of traditional Kadazandusun cooking.

Chinese-influenced dishes like northern Chinese potstickers and Hakka stuffed tofu, along with many original creations developed in Sabah's interior settlements by immigrants from both northern and southern China throughout the 20th century, feature prominently on the menus of many kopitiam establishments and upscale restaurants. Sabah is notable for its excellent seafood, temperate produce and tea Sabah tea has GI status grown in the highlands of Mt. Kinabalu, and a small coffee plantation industry with Tenom coffee considered the best produce in the region. Local ingredients like freshwater fish, wild boar bakas in native dialects , bamboo shoots, wild ferns, and various jungle produce still figure prominently in the daily diet of the local population.

As a significant portion of rural communities still subsist on agriculture as their primary source of income, small scale festivals are even held each year at certain towns to celebrate produce vital to the livelihoods of the local people: the Pesta Jagung of Kota Marudu , the Pesta Rumbia sago of Kuala Penyu , and Pesta Kelapa from the town of Kudat. It is one of the local terms used for a variety of Sauropus albicans developed in Lahad Datu , which yields crunchy edible shoots in addition to its leaves. Whether grilled, cured , deep-fried, steamed, stir-fried, braised, served raw, or made into soups, Sabah's seafood is famed for its freshness, quality, and good value for money.

A vast variety of fish, cephalopods, marine crustaceans, shellfish, sea cucumbers and jellyfish have become mainstays on lunch and dinner menus at kopitiam, restaurants, and humble food shacks all over Kota Kinabalu and other coastal towns like Sandakan , Tawau , Lahad Datu and Semporna. Seafood paired with noodles also figure prominently for breakfast, for each day locals flock to speciality eateries where they may be served an assortment of fish-based products to start the day.

Examples include: poached patties handmade with fresh fish paste ; deep-fried fish cakes wrapped in tofu skin sheets; and noodle soups with toppings like sliced fish fillet , fish or prawn balls , and fish innards. A few eateries even serve "noodles" rolled out with fresh fish paste. Edible seaweed is a traditional food for certain seaside communities throughout Sabah and also possess GI status. Sarawakian is quite distinct from the regional cuisines of the Peninsular. It is considered less spicy, lightly prepared and with more emphasis on subtle flavours. The most important spice in Sarawakian cuisine is pepper. Pepper is commercially produced on an industrial scale as a cash crop, and the preferred choice by local cooks when heat is wanted in a dish.

While the Iban constitute the largest Dayak subgroup as well as the most populous ethnic group in Sarawak, much of the ethnic Iban population is still concentrated away from Sarawak's main urban areas, congregating instead within longhouse communities scattered all over the interior regions of the state. The traditional cookery of the Iban is called pansoh or pansuh , which is the preparation and cooking of food in bamboo tubes. Ingredients like poultry, fish, pork, vegetables or rice are mixed with fragrant herbs like lemongrass, tapioca leaves and bungkang leaves a species of myrtle from the Eugenia genus , then sealed within the bamboo tubes and placed directly over an open fire. Cooking food this way will infuse it with aroma and flavour from the bamboo tubes while keeping it moist.

During Dayak festivals or Gawai , the Iban would slaughter locally reared pigs. The pig would be cleaned thoroughly after the slaughter, have its head and stomach removed, and the rest of the pig would be cut into smaller pieces in preparation for barbecuing. The head and stomach of a pig are usually put aside and prepared separately as they are considered the choicest parts of the animal; hence pig's heads are a common edible gift brought by visitors to an Iban longhouse, and dishes such as pork stomach cooked with pineapples are a must for Gawai.

Peranakan cuisine, also called Nyonya food, was developed by the Straits Chinese whose descendants reside in today's Malaysia and Singapore. The old Malay word nyonya also spelled nonya , a term of respect and affection for women of prominent social standing part "madame" and part "auntie" , has come to refer to the cuisine of the Peranakans. It uses mainly Chinese ingredients but blends them with Malay ingredients such as coconut milk, lemon grass, turmeric, tamarind, pandan leaves, chillies and sambal. It can be considered as a blend of Chinese and Malay cooking, with influences from Indonesian Chinese cuisine for the Nyonya food of Malaccan and Singaporean and Thai cuisine for Penang Nyonya cuisine. Traditional Nyonya cooking is often very elaborate, labour-intensive and time consuming, and the Peranakan community often consider the best Nyonya food is to be found in private homes.

Kuih plural: kuih-muih are usually, but not always, bite-sized foods associated with the Malay and Min-speaking Chinese communities of Malaysia. In the context of the term being cultural as opposed to being physically descriptive, the concept of kuih may refer to a selection of cakes, cookies, confections, pastries and sweetmeats. Kuih may be eaten throughout the day for light breakfast, afternoon tea a tradition adopted from the British , as a snack and increasingly as an after-meal course.

More often steamed or fried and based on rice or glutinous rice, kuih items are very different in texture, flavour and appearance from Western oven-baked cakes or puff pastries. Most kuih items are sweet, and may be classified and eaten as desserts , but some are also savoury. Kuih is an important feature of festive occasions and is traditionally made at home, but is now available for purchase from home caterers, street vendors, market stallholders and specialist cafes, shops and restaurants. It is difficult to distinguish between kuih of Malay or Peranakan also known as "Straits Chinese" origin because the histories of traditional kuih recipes have not been well-documented, and cross-cultural influences over the centuries were commonplace.

Examples of notable kuih-muih include:. Desserts and sweets in Malaysia are diverse, due to the multi-ethnic and multicultural characteristics of its society. Traditional Malay and Nyonya desserts tend to share a common feature however: generous amounts of coconut milk are used, and the finished product usually flavoured with gula melaka palm sugar and pandan leaves. Some notable desserts include:. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Culinary traditions of Malaysia. See also: List of Malaysian dishes. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.

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