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Interdisciplinary studies became popular and scholars such as Georgy Shchedrovitsky developed systems theory approaches to human behavior. Twentieth-century Chinese psychology originally modeled itself on U. Chinese psychologists were encouraged to focus on education and language learning. Chinese psychologists were drawn to the idea that education would enable modernization. John Dewey, who lectured to Chinese audiences between and , had a significant influence on psychology in China.

Chinese psychologists elaborated on Lenin's model of a "reflective" consciousness, envisioning an "active consciousness" pinyin : tzu-chueh neng-tung-li able to transcend material conditions through hard work and ideological struggle. They developed a concept of "recognition" pinyin : jen-shih which referred to the interface between individual perceptions and the socially accepted worldview; failure to correspond with party doctrine was "incorrect recognition.

Because most leading psychologists were educated in the United States, the first concern of the Academy was the re-education of these psychologists in the Soviet doctrines. Child psychology and pedagogy for the purpose of a nationally cohesive education remained a central goal of the discipline. Several associations including the Association of Black Psychologists and the Asian American Psychological Association have arisen to promote the inclusion of non-European racial groups in the profession. IUPsyS recognizes 66 national psychology associations and at least 15 others exist. The Interamerican Psychological Society , founded in , aspires to promote psychology across the Western Hemisphere. It holds the Interamerican Congress of Psychology and ha had 1, members in year The European Federation of Professional Psychology Associations, founded in , represents 30 national associations with a total of , individual members.

At least 30 other international organizations represent psychologists in different regions. In some places, governments legally regulate who can provide psychological services or represent themselves as a "psychologist. Early practitioners of experimental psychology distinguished themselves from parapsychology , which in the late nineteenth century enjoyed popularity including the interest of scholars such as William James.

Some people considered parapsychology to be part of "psychology. But students of these fields were eventually ostractized, and more or less banished from the Congress in — As a discipline, psychology has long sought to fend off accusations that it is a "soft" science. Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn 's critique implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking agreement on the type of overarching theory found in mature sciences such as chemistry and physics. Skeptics have suggested that personality, thinking, and emotion cannot be directly measured and are often inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic.

Experimental psychologists have devised a variety of ways to indirectly measure these elusive phenomenological entities. Divisions still exist within the field, with some psychologists more oriented towards the unique experiences of individual humans, which cannot be understood only as data points within a larger population. Critics inside and outside the field have argued that mainstream psychology has become increasingly dominated by a "cult of empiricism," which limits the scope of research because investigators restrict themselves to methods derived from the physical sciences.

Psychologists generally consider biology the substrate of thought and feeling, and therefore an important area of study. Behaviorial neuroscience, also known as biological psychology, involves the application of biological principles to the study of physiological and genetic mechanisms underlying behavior in humans and other animals. The allied field of comparative psychology is the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals. From Phineas Gage to H. Soon after, Carl Wernicke identified a related area necessary for the understanding of speech.

The contemporary field of behavioral neuroscience focuses on the physical basis of behavior. Behaviorial neuroscientists use animal models, often relying on rats, to study the neural, genetic, and cellular mechanisms that underlie behaviors involved in learning, memory, and fear responses. Neuropsychologists conduct psychological assessments to determine how an individual's behavior and cognition are related to the brain. The biopsychosocial model is a cross-disciplinary, holistic model that concerns the ways in which interrelationships of biological, psychological, and socio-environmental factors affect health and behavior.

Evolutionary psychology approaches thought and behavior from a modern evolutionary perspective. This perspective suggests that psychological adaptations evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. Evolutionary psychologists attempt to find out how human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, the results of natural selection or sexual selection over the course of human evolution. The history of the biological foundations of psychology includes evidence of racism. The idea of white supremacy and indeed the modern concept of race itself arose during the process of world conquest by Europeans.

Race was also used to justify the construction of socially specific mental disorders such as drapetomania and dysaesthesia aethiopica —the behavior of uncooperative African slaves. A tenet of behavioral research is that a large part of both human and lower-animal behavior is learned. A principle associated with behavioral research is that the mechanisms involved in learning apply to humans and non-human animals.

Behavioral researchers have developed a treatment known as behavior modification , which is used to help individuals replace undesirable behaviors with desirable ones. Early behavioral researchers studied stimulus—response pairings, now known as classical conditioning. They demonstrated that when a biologically potent stimulus e. Ivan Pavlov—known best for inducing dogs to salivate in the presence of a stimulus previously linked with food—became a leading figure in the Soviet Union and inspired followers to use his methods on humans.

Thorndike wrote in , "There can be no moral warrant for studying man's nature unless the study will enable us to control his acts. Watson coined the term behaviorism for this school of thought. Clark L. Hull , Edwin Guthrie , and others did much to help behaviorism become a widely used paradigm. Radical behaviorists avoided discussing the inner workings of the mind, especially the unconscious mind, which they considered impossible to assess scientifically. Skinner , who emerged as a leading intellectual of the behaviorist movement. Noam Chomsky published an influential critique of radical behaviorism on the grounds that behaviorist principles could not adequately explain the complex mental process of language acquisition and language use.

Tolman advanced a hybrid "cognitive behavioral" model, most notably with his publication discussing the cognitive maps used by rats to guess at the location of food at the end of a maze. The Association for Behavior Analysis International was founded in and by had members from 42 countries. The field has gained a foothold in Latin America and Japan. The Stroop effect is the fact that naming the color of the first set of words is easier and quicker than the second.

Cognitive psychology involves the study of mental processes , including perception , attention , language comprehension and production, memory , and problem solving. They rely on an information processing model of mental functioning. Cognitivist research is informed by functionalism and experimental psychology. Starting in the s, the experimental techniques developed by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others re-emerged as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitivist and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider, interdisciplinary cognitive science.

Albert Bandura helped along the transition in psychology from behaviorism to cognitive psychology. Bandura and other social learning theorists advanced the idea of vicarious learning. In other words, they advanced the view that a child can learn by observing his or her social environment and not necessarily from having been reinforced for enacting a behavior, although they did not rule out the influence of reinforcement on learning a behavior. Technological advances also renewed interest in mental states and mental representations. Hebb used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena to the structure and function of the brain.

The rise of computer science, cybernetics, and artificial intelligence underlined the value of comparing information processing in humans and machines. A popular and representative topic in this area is cognitive bias , or irrational thought. Psychologists and economists have classified and described a sizeable catalogue of biases which recur frequently in human thought. The availability heuristic , for example, is the tendency to overestimate the importance of something which happens to come readily to mind. Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form cognitive behavioral therapy , a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T.

On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise involving cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, linguists, and researchers in artificial intelligence, human—computer interaction, and computational neuroscience. The discipline of cognitive science covers cognitive psychology as well as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience. Social psychology is concerned with how behaviors , thoughts , feelings , and the social environment influence human interactions. Social cognition fuses elements of social and cognitive psychology for the purpose of understanding how people process, remember, or distort social information. The study of group dynamics involves research on the nature of leadership, organizational communication, and related phenomena.

In recent years, social psychologists have become interested in implicit measures, mediational models, and the interaction of person and social factors in accounting for behavior. Some concepts that sociologists have applied to the study of psychiatric disorders, concepts such as the social role, sick role, social class, life events, culture, migration, and total institution , have influenced social psychologists.

Psychoanalysis refers to the theories and therapeutic techniques applied to the unconscious mind and its impact on everyday life. These theories and techniques inform treatments for mental disorders. Freud's psychoanalytic theory was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection , and clinical observation. It became very well known, largely because it tackled subjects such as sexuality , repression , and the unconscious. Psychoanalytic theory is not monolithic. These individuals ensured that psychoanalysis would evolve into diverse schools of thought.

Among these schools are ego psychology , object relations , and interpersonal , Lacanian , and relational psychoanalysis. Psychologists such as Hans Eysenck and philosophers including Karl Popper sharply criticized psychoanalysis. Popper argued that psychoanalysis had been misrepresented as a scientific discipline, [] whereas Eysenck advanced the view that psychoanalytic tenets had been contradicted by experimental data.

By the end of 20th century, psychology departments in American universities mostly marginalized Freudian theory, dismissing it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact. Humanistic psychology , which has been influenced by existentialism and phenomenology, [] stresses free will and self-actualization. It emphasizes subjective meaning, the rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology. Some founders of the humanistic school of thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow , who formulated a hierarchy of human needs , and Carl Rogers , who created and developed client-centered therapy.

Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific study. Positive psychology is the study of factors which contribute to human happiness and well-being, focusing more on people who are currently healthy. In , Clinical Psychological Review published a special issue devoted to positive psychological interventions, such as gratitude journaling and the physical expression of gratitude.

It is, however, far from clear that positive psychology is effective in making people happier. The evidence, however, is far from clear that interventions based on positive psychology increase human happiness or resilience. Humanistic psychology is primarily an orientation toward the whole of psychology rather than a distinct area or school. It stands for respect for the worth of persons, respect for differences of approach, open-mindedness as to acceptable methods, and interest in exploration of new aspects of human behavior. As a "third force" in contemporary psychology, it is concerned with topics having little place in existing theories and systems: e. Existential psychology emphasizes the need to understand a client's total orientation towards the world.

Existential psychology is opposed to reductionism, behaviorism, and other methods that objectify the individual. Existential psychotherapy , which follows from existential psychology, is a therapeutic approach that is based on the idea that a person's inner conflict arises from that individual's confrontation with the givens of existence. Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may also be said to belong to the existential school. Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections upon his own internment.

Personality psychology is concerned with enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. Theories of personality vary across different psychological schools of thought. Each theory carries different assumptions about such features as the role of the unconscious and the importance of childhood experience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the id, ego, and super-ego. Trait theorists have often employed statistical data-reduction methods, such as factor analysis. Although the number of proposed traits has varied widely, Hans Eysenck 's early biologically-based model suggests at least three major trait constructs are necessary to describe human personality, extraversion—introversion , neuroticism -stability, and psychoticism -normality.

Raymond Cattell empirically derived a theory of 16 personality factors at the primary-factor level and up to eight broader second-stratum factors. However, despite a plethora of research into the various versions of the "Big Five" personality dimensions, it appears necessary to move on from static conceptualizations of personality structure to a more dynamic orientation, acknowledging that personality constructs are subject to learning and change over the lifespan. The popular, although psychometrically inadequate, Myers—Briggs Type Indicator [] was developed to assess individuals' "personality types" according to the personality theories of Carl Jung.

Study of the unconscious mind, a part of the psyche outside the individual's awareness but that is believed to influence conscious thought and behavior, was a hallmark of early psychology. In one of the first psychology experiments conducted in the United States, C. Peirce and Joseph Jastrow found in that research subjects could choose the minutely heavier of two weights even if consciously uncertain of the difference. Pierre Janet advanced the idea of a subconscious mind, which could contain autonomous mental elements unavailable to the direct scrutiny of the subject. The concept of unconscious processes has remained important in psychology.

Cognitive psychologists have used a "filter" model of attention, according to which much information processing takes place below the threshold of consciousness, and only certain stimuli, limited by their nature and number, make their way through the filter. Much research has shown that subconscious priming of certain ideas can covertly influence thoughts and behavior. For this reason, some psychologists prefer to distinguish between implicit and explicit memory. In another approach, one can also describe a subliminal stimulus as meeting an objective but not a subjective threshold.

The automaticity model of John Bargh and others involves the ideas of automaticity and unconscious processing in our understanding of social behavior , [] [] although there has been dispute with regard to replication. Some psychologists study motivation or the subject of why people or lower animals initiate a behavior at a particular time. It also involves the study of why humans and lower animals continue or terminate a behavior. Psychologists such as William James initially used the term motivation to refer to intention, in a sense similar to the concept of will in European philosophy.

With the steady rise of Darwinian and Freudian thinking, instinct also came to be seen as a primary source of motivation. Psychoanalysis, like biology, regarded these forces as demands originating in the nervous system. Psychoanalysts believed that these forces, especially the sexual instincts, could become entangled and transmuted within the psyche. Classical psychoanalysis conceives of a struggle between the pleasure principle and the reality principle , roughly corresponding to id and ego.

Later, in Beyond the Pleasure Principle , Freud introduced the concept of the death drive , a compulsion towards aggression, destruction, and psychic repetition of traumatic events. Hunger, thirst, fear, sexual desire, and thermoregulation constitute fundamental motivations in animals. Motivation can be modulated or manipulated in many different ways. Researchers have found that eating , for example, depends not only on the organism's fundamental need for homeostasis —an important factor causing the experience of hunger—but also on circadian rhythms, food availability, food palatability, and cost.

They suggest that this principle can even apply to food, drink, sex, and sleep. Developmental psychology refers to the scientific study of how and why humans change over the course of their lives. Later, developmental psychology extended itself to the study cognition over the life span. In addition to studying cognition, developmental psychologists have also come to focus on affective, moral, social, and neural development. Developmental psychologists who study children use a number of research methods. For example, they make observations of children in natural settings such as preschools [] and engage them in experimental tasks. Developmental researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of infants.

All researched psychological traits are influenced by both genes and environment , to varying degrees. An example of this confounding can be shown in the transmission of depression from a depressed mother to her offspring. A theory based on environmental transmission would hold that an offspring, by virtue of his or her having a problematic rearing environment managed by a depressed mother, is at risk for developing depression. On the other hand, a hereditarian theory would hold that depression risk in an offspring is influenced to some extent by genes passed to the child from the mother. Genes and environment in these simple transmission models are completely confounded.

A depressed mother may both carry genes that contribute to depression in her offspring and also create a rearing environment that increases the risk of depression in her child. Behavioral genetics researchers have employed methodologies that help to disentangle this confound and understand the nature and origins of individual differences in behavior. More recently, gene-focused research has contributed to understanding genetic contributions to the development of psychological traits.

The availability of microarray molecular genetic or genome sequencing technologies allows researchers to measure participant DNA variation directly, and test whether individual genetic variants within genes are associated with psychological traits and psychopathology through methods including genome-wide association studies. One goal of such research is similar to that in positional cloning and its success in Huntington's : once a causal gene is discovered biological research can be conducted to understand how that gene influences the phenotype.

One major result of genetic association studies is the general finding that psychological traits and psychopathology, as well as complex medical diseases, are highly polygenic , [] [] [] [] [] where a large number on the order of hundreds to thousands of genetic variants, each of small effect, contribute to individual differences in the behavioral trait or propensity to the disorder. Active research continues to work toward understanding the genetic and environmental bases of behavior and their interaction.

Psychology encompasses many subfields and includes different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Psychological testing has ancient origins, dating as far back as BC, in the examinations for the Chinese civil service. By , the Chinese system required a stratified series of tests, involving essay writing and knowledge of diverse topics. The system was ended in Physiognomy remained current through the Enlightenment, and added the doctrine of phrenology: a study of mind and intelligence based on simple assessment of neuroanatomy.

When experimental psychology came to Britain, Francis Galton was a leading practitioner. By virtue of his procedures for measuring reaction time and sensation, he is considered an inventor of modern mental testing also known as psychometrics. They used a range of questions diverse in their nature and difficulty. Binet and Simon introduced the concept of mental age and referred to the lowest scorers on their test as idiots. Henry H. Goddard put the Binet-Simon scale to work and introduced classifications of mental level such as imbecile and feebleminded.

In after Binet's death , Stanford professor Lewis M. Terman modified the Binet-Simon scale renamed the Stanford—Binet scale and introduced the intelligence quotient as a score report. Their dullness seems to be racial. Following the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests, which was developed by psychologist Robert Yerkes in and then used in World War 1 by industrial and organizational psychologists for large-scale employee testing and selection of military personnel. The federally created National Intelligence Test was administered to 7 million children in the s.

Setting a precedent that has never been overturned, the U. Supreme Court affirmed the constitutionality of this practice in the case Buck v. Today mental testing is a routine phenomenon for people of all ages in Western societies. The provision of psychological health services is generally called clinical psychology in the U. Sometimes, however, members of the school psychology and counseling psychology professions engage in practices that resemble that of clinical psychologists. Clinical psychologists typically include people who have graduated from doctoral programs in clinical psychology. In Canada, some of the members of the abovementioned groups usually fall within the larger category of professional psychology.

In Canada and the U. In Mexico and most other Latin American and European countries, psychologists do not get bachelor's and doctoral degrees; instead, they take a three-year professional course following high school. Clinical psychologists also try to promote subjective well-being and personal growth. Central to the practice of clinical psychology are psychological assessment and psychotherapy although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration. Credit for the first psychology clinic in the United States typically goes to Lightner Witmer , who established his practice in Philadelphia in Another modern psychotherapist was Morton Prince , an early advocate for the establishment of psychology as a clinical and academic discipline.

Psychology entered the field with its refinements of mental testing, which promised to improve the diagnosis of mental problems. For their part, some psychiatrists became interested in using psychoanalysis and other forms of psychodynamic psychotherapy to understand and treat the mentally ill. Psychotherapy as conducted by psychiatrists blurred the distinction between psychiatry and psychology, and this trend continued with the rise of community mental health facilities.

Some in the clinical psychology community adopted behavioral therapy , a thoroughly non-psychodynamic model that used behaviorist learning theory to change the actions of patients. A key aspect of behavior therapy is empirical evaluation of the treatment's effectiveness. In the s, cognitive-behavior therapy emerged with the work of Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck. Although there are similarities between behavior therapy and cognitive-behavior therapy, cognitive-behavior therapy required the application of cognitive constructs. Since the s, the popularity of cognitive-behavior therapy among clinical psychologists increased. A key practice in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy is exposing patients to things they fear, based on the premise that their responses fear, panic, anxiety can be deconditioned.

Mental health care today involves psychologists and social workers in increasing numbers. In , National Institute of Mental Health director Bertram Brown described this shift as a source of "intense competition and role confusion. The PhD degree is intended to train practitioners who could also conduct scientific research. The PsyD degree is more exclusively designed to train practitioners. Some clinical psychologists focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury. This subspecialty is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession. The emerging field of disaster psychology see crisis intervention involves professionals who respond to large-scale traumatic events. The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client usually an individual, couple, family, or small group.

Typically, these approaches encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential—humanistic, and systems or family therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies have equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance.

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. The work of developmental psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget , and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices. Educational psychology is often included in teacher education programs in places such as North America, Australia, and New Zealand.

School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of gifted students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning environments. School psychologists are trained in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research.

The field was at first called economic psychology or business psychology ; later, industrial psychology , employment psychology , or psychotechnology. Western Electric experimented on factory workers to assess their responses to changes in illumination, breaks, food, and wages. The researchers came to focus on workers' responses to observation itself, and the term Hawthorne effect is now used to describe the fact that people work harder when they think they're being watched. The name industrial and organizational psychology emerged in the s. In , it became enshrined in the name of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology , Division 14 of the American Psychological Association. Personnel psychologists apply the methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers.

Another subfield, organizational psychology , examines the effects of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity. Organizational behavior OB is an allied field involved in the study of human behavior within organizations. One role for psychologists in the military has been to evaluate and counsel soldiers and other personnel. In the U. The school provided psychological training for military staff. S Army psychologists perform psychological screening, clinical psychotherapy, suicide prevention , and treatment for post-traumatic stress, as well as provide prevention-related services, for example, smoking cessation. Psychologists may also work on a diverse set of campaigns known broadly as psychological warfare.

Psychological warfare chiefly involves the use of propaganda to influence enemy soldiers and civilians. This so-called black propaganda is designed to seem as if it originates from a source other than the Army. An example of the contribution of psychologists to social change involves the research of Kenneth and Mamie Clark. These two African American psychologists studied segregation's adverse psychological impact on Black children. Their research findings played a role in the desegregation case Brown v. Board of Education The impact of psychology on social change includes the discipline's broad influence on teaching and learning.

Research has shown that compared to the "whole word" or "whole language" approach, the phonics approach to reading instruction is more efficacious. Medical facilities increasingly employ psychologists to perform various roles. One aspect of health psychology is the psychoeducation of patients: instructing them in how to follow a medical regimen. Health psychologists can also educate doctors and conduct research on patient compliance.

These range from public relations campaigns and outreach to governmental laws and policies. Psychologists study the composite influence of all these different tools in an effort to influence whole populations of people. Psychologists work with organizations to apply findings from psychological research to improve the health and well-being of employees. Some work as external consultants hired by organizations to solve specific problems, whereas others are full-time employees of the organization.

Applications include conducting surveys to identify issues and designing interventions to make work healthier. Some of the specific health areas include:. Interventions that improve climates are a way to address accidents and violence. Interventions that reduce stress at work or provide employees with tools to better manage it can help in areas where stress is an important component.

Concern with the health and well-being of workers goes back over a hundred years in British industrial psychology. As interest in the worker health expanded toward the end of the twentieth century, the field of occupational health psychology OHP emerged. OHP is a branch of psychology that is interdisciplinary. Quantitative psychological research lends itself to the statistical testing of hypotheses. Although the field makes abundant use of randomized and controlled experiments in laboratory settings, such research can only assess a limited range of short-term phenomena.

Some psychologists rely on less rigorously controlled, but more ecologically valid , field experiments as well. Other research psychologists rely on statistical methods to glean knowledge from population data. The measurement and operationalization of important constructs is an essential part of these research designs. Although this type of psychological research is much less abundant than quantitative research, some psychologists conduct qualitative research. This type of research can involve interviews, questionnaires, and first-hand observation. A true experiment with random assignment of research participants sometimes called subjects to rival conditions allows researchers to make strong inferences about causal relationships.

When there are large numbers of research participants, the random assignment also called random allocation of those participants to rival conditions ensures that the individuals in those conditions will, on average, be similar on most characteristics, including characteristics that went unmeasured. In an experiment, the researcher alters one or more variables of influence, called independent variables , and measures resulting changes in the factors of interest, called dependent variables.

Prototypical experimental research is conducted in a laboratory with a carefully controlled environment. A quasi-experiment refers to a situation in which there are rival conditions under study but random assignment to the different conditions is not possible. Investigators must work with preexisting groups of people. Researchers can use common sense to consider how much the nonrandom assignment threatens the study's validity. Psychologists will compare the achievement of children attending phonics and whole language classes and, perhaps, statistically adjust for any initial differences in reading level.

Experimental researchers typically use a statistical hypothesis testing model which involves making predictions before conducting the experiment, then assessing how well the data collected are consistent with the predictions. These predictions are likely to originate from one or more abstract scientific hypotheses about how the phenomenon under study actually works. Surveys are used in psychology for the purpose of measuring attitudes and traits , monitoring changes in mood , and checking the validity of experimental manipulations checking research participants' perception of the condition they were assigned to.

Psychologists have commonly used paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys are also conducted over the phone or through e-mail. Web-based surveys are increasingly used to conveniently reach many subjects. Observational studies are commonly conducted in psychology. In cross-sectional observational studies, psychologists collect data at a single point in time. The goal of many cross-sectional studies is the assess the extent factors are correlated with each other. By contrast, in longitudinal studies psychologists collect data on the same sample at two or more points in time.

Sometimes the purpose of longitudinal research is to study trends across time such as the stability of traits or age-related changes in behavior. Because some studies involve endpoints that psychologists cannot ethically study from an experimental standpoint, such as identifying the causes of depression, they conduct longitudinal studies a large group of depression-free people, periodically assessing what is happening in the individuals' lives.

In this way psychologists have an opportunity to test causal hypotheses regarding conditions that commonly arise in people's lives that put them at risk for depression. Problems that affect longitudinal studies include selective attrition , the type of problem in which bias is introduced when a certain type of research participant disproportionately leaves a study. Exploratory data analysis refers to a variety of practices that researchers use to reduce a great many variables to a small number overarching factors. In Peirce's three modes of inference , exploratory data analysis corresponds to abduction. A classic and popular tool used to relate mental and neural activity is the electroencephalogram EEG , a technique using amplified electrodes on a person's scalp to measure voltage changes in different parts of the brain.

Hans Berger , the first researcher to use EEG on an unopened skull, quickly found that brains exhibit signature "brain waves": electric oscillations which correspond to different states of consciousness. Researchers subsequently refined statistical methods for synthesizing the electrode data, and identified unique brain wave patterns such as the delta wave observed during non-REM sleep. Newer functional neuroimaging techniques include functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography , both of which track the flow of blood through the brain. These technologies provide more localized information about activity in the brain and create representations of the brain with widespread appeal. They also provide insight which avoids the classic problems of subjective self-reporting.

It remains challenging to draw hard conclusions about where in the brain specific thoughts originate—or even how usefully such localization corresponds with reality. However, neuroimaging has delivered unmistakable results showing the existence of correlations between mind and brain. Some of these draw on a systemic neural network model rather than a localized function model.

Psychiatric interventions such as transcranial magnetic stimulation and drugs also provide information about brain—mind interactions. Psychopharmacology is the study of drug-induced mental effects. Computational modeling is a tool used in mathematical psychology and cognitive psychology to simulate behavior. Since modern computers process information quickly, simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for high statistical power.

Modeling also allows psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human. Computational neuroscience uses mathematical models to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, which represents many mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling. Animal experiments aid in investigating many aspects of human psychology, including perception, emotion, learning, memory, and thought, to name a few. In the s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning. Non-human primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, and rats and other rodents are often used in psychological experiments.

Ideally, controlled experiments introduce only one independent variable at a time, in order to ascertain its unique effects upon dependent variables. These conditions are approximated best in laboratory settings. In contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and depend upon so many factors, that it is difficult to control important variables for human subjects. There are pitfalls, however, in generalizing findings from animal studies to humans through animal models.

Comparative psychology refers to the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior. Research in this area explores the behavior of many species, from insects to primates. It is closely related to other disciplines that study animal behavior such as ethology. Qualitative research is often designed to answer questions about the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals. Qualitative research involving first-hand observation can help describe events as they occur, with the goal of capturing the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of discovering and understanding phenomena that might have been missed if only more cursory examinations are made.

Qualitative psychological research methods include interviews, first-hand observation, and participant observation. Creswell identified five main possibilities for qualitative research, including narrative, phenomenology, ethnography , case study , and grounded theory. Qualitative researchers [] sometimes aim to enrich our understanding of symbols, subjective experiences, or social structures.

Sometimes hermeneutic and critical aims can give rise to quantitative research, as in Erich Fromm 's application of psychological and sociological theories, in his book Escape from Freedom , to understanding why many ordinary Germans supported Hitler. Just as Jane Goodall studied chimpanzee social and family life by careful observation of chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists conduct naturalistic observation of ongoing human social, professional, and family life. Sometimes the participants are aware they are being observed, and other times the participants do not know they are being observed. Strict ethical guidelines must be followed when covert observation is being carried out. Program evaluation involves the systematic collection, analysis, and application of information to answer questions about projects, policies and programs, particularly about their effectiveness.

While program evaluation first focuses on effectiveness, important considerations often include how much the program costs per participant, how the program could be improved, whether the program is worthwhile, whether there are better alternatives, if there are unintended outcomes, and whether the program goals are appropriate and useful. Metascience involves the application of scientific methodology to study science itself. The field of metascience has revealed problems in psychological research.

Some psychological research has suffered from bias , [] problematic reproducibility , [] and misuse of statistics. Fanelli argued that this is because researchers in "softer" sciences have fewer constraints to their conscious and unconscious biases. A replication crisis in psychology has emerged. Many notable findings in the field have not been replicated. Some researchers were even accused of publishing fraudulent results.

Focus on the replication crisis has led to other renewed efforts in the discipline to re-test important findings. The collaborators regularly make their data openly available for different researchers to assess. Some critics view statistical hypothesis testing as misplaced. Psychologist and statistician Jacob Cohen wrote in that psychologists routinely confuse statistical significance with practical importance, enthusiastically reporting great certainty in unimportant facts. In , Arnett pointed out that most articles in American Psychological Association journals were about U. He complained that psychologists had no basis for assuming psychological processes to be universal and generalizing research findings to the rest of the global population.

Arnett , Altmaier, and Hall and Morgan-Consoli et al. Moreover, their analysis showed that several studies did not fully disclose the origin of their samples; the authors offered a set of recommendations to editors and reviewers to reduce WEIRD bias. Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in particular, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices. Ethical standards in the discipline have changed over time. Some famous past studies are today considered unethical and in violation of established codes the Canadian Code of Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report.

The American Psychological Association has advanced a set of ethical principles and a code of conduct for the profession. The most important contemporary standards include informed and voluntary consent. Later, most countries and scientific journals adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. All of these measures encouraged researchers to obtain informed consent from human participants in experimental studies. A number of influential but ethically dubious studies led to the establishment of this rule; such studies included the MIT-Harvard Fernald School radioisotope studies , the Thalidomide tragedy , the Willowbrook hepatitis study , and Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.

Universities have ethics committees dedicated to protecting the rights e. University ethics committees evaluate proposed research to ensure that researchers protect the rights and well-being of participants; an investigator's research project cannot be conducted unless approved by such an ethics committee. This code has guided the formation of licensing laws in most American states.

It has changed multiple times over the decades since its adoption. In , the APA revised its policies on advertising and referral fees to negotiate the end of an investigation by the Federal Trade Commission. The incarnation was the first to distinguish between "aspirational" ethical standards and "enforceable" ones. Some of the ethical issues considered most important are the requirement to practice only within the area of competence, to maintain confidentiality with the patients, and to avoid sexual relations with them.

Another important principle is informed consent , the idea that a patient or research subject must understand and freely choose a procedure they are undergoing. Research on other animals is also governed by university ethics committees. Research on nonhuman animals cannot proceed without permission of the ethics committee of the researcher's home institution.

Current ethical guidelines state that using non-human animals for scientific purposes is only acceptable when the harm physical or psychological done to animals is outweighed by the benefits of the research. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Study of mental functions and behaviours. Not to be confused with Phycology , Physiology , or Psychiatry. For the album, see Psychology album. For the short story, see Psychology short story. For the Pet Shop Boys song, see Psychological song. Basic types. Applied psychology. Main article: History of psychology. See also: List of psychology organizations. Main article: Cognitive neuroscience. Main articles: Behaviorism , Psychological behaviorism , and Radical behaviorism.

Play media. Main article: Cognitive psychology. Main article: Social psychology. See also: Social psychology sociology. Main articles: Psychodynamics and psychoanalysis. Main articles: Existential psychology and Humanistic psychology. Main article: Personality psychology. Main article: Motivation. Main article: Developmental psychology. Main article: Behavioral genetics. Further information: Outline of psychology , List of psychology disciplines , Applied psychology , and Subfields of psychology.

See also: Psychometrics and social statistics. See also: Clinical psychology. Main articles: Educational psychology and School psychology. See also: Industrial and organizational psychology and Organizational behavior. See also: Health psychology , Social issues , Industrial and organizational psychology , and Occupational health psychology. Main articles: Psychological research and List of psychological research methods. Main article: Experiment. See also: Computational cognition , Graph theory , and Network theory. Further information: Misuse of statistics and Misuse of p-values.

For other uses, see Weird. See also: Cultural psychology , Indigenous psychology , Transnational psychology , and Cross-cultural psychology. Psychology: Six perspectives pp. Worth Publishers, By contrast, behaviorists consider such phenomena as classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Cognitivists explore implicit memory , automaticity , and subliminal messages , all of which are understood either to bypass or to occur outside of conscious effort or attention.

Indeed, cognitive-behavioral therapists counsel their clients to become aware of maladaptive thought patterns, the nature of which the clients previously had not been conscious. Introduction to psychology: Gateways to mind and behavior 12th ed. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning. About APA. Retrieved 20 October Retrieved 10 December Edited by Andrew M. Oxford University Press Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. The Principles of Psychology. New York: Henry Holt. Psychological Review. Gregory ed. PMID Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Early psychological thought: Ancient accounts of mind and soul. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.

Retrieved 20 September Scientific psychology in the 18th century: A historical rediscovery. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11 , In: Perspectives on Psychological Science , Nr. Gundlach, "Germany", in Baker ed. Elemente der Psychophysik. Breitkopf u. Benjamin, Jr. James Goodwin, "United States", in Baker ed. Pavlov: An overview of his life and psychological work". American Psychologist. In fact, in the period between and , the Rockefellers were almost the sole support of sex research in the United States. The decisions made by their scientific advisers about the nature of the research to be supported and how it was conducted, as well as the topics eligible for research support, shaped the whole field of sex research and, in many ways, still continue to support it.

One graduate of the Record Office training program wrote, 'I hope to serve the cause by infiltrating eugenics into the minds of teachers. It may interest you to know that each student who takes psychology here works up his family history and plots his family tree. Occupational health psychology: Work, stress, and health. In the case of psychotherapy, he defined health in terms of blood, strong will, proficiency, discipline, Zucht und Ordnung , community, heroic bearing, and physical fitness. Schultz-Hencke also took the opportunity in to criticize psychoanalysis for providing an unfortunate tendency toward the exculpation of the criminal. This lets us find the most appropriate writer for any type of assignment.

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